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The manuscript, commonly referred to as the Florentine Codex, consists of twelve books that cover a range of different topics. The twelfth book focuses on the Spanish conquest of Mexico between 1519 and 1521.

Ixtlilxochitl affirms that her name was Tayhualcan, and she was the daughter of Totoquihuaztli, the last pre-Hispanic ruler of Tlacopan, the city-state, which together with Tenochtitlan and Texcoco formed the powerful Triple Alliance, i.e. the confederation which we usually call the “Aztec empire” (Ixtlilxochitl 1848:277).

Although earlier scholars thought that the stone was carved in the 1470s, during the reign of the Aztec emperor Axayacatl, most writers today believe Moctezuma Xocoyotzin commissioned the Calendar Stone sometime between 1502 and the conquest of Mexico in 1521.

As the foregoing indicates, the most prosperous and politically powerful individuals in Aztec society possessed and used the most powerful masks, which were denied to members of the larger commoner class as well as war captives and slaves.

Apothecaries began to use dried frog intestines to treat kidney stones, and the use of toads became common as they could function as diuretics and blood purifiers. Pic 7: Aztec stone frog sculpture, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City (Click on image to enlarge) Toads and frogs provided life-giving sustenance on two planes.

Emperor Motecuhzoma II is depicted during the Battle of Toluca against Huexotzinco wearing the costume bearing the flayed human skin honouring Xipe Totec that had been worn by his predecessor Axayacatl when the Mexica fought against Tlatelolco in 1473.

General Aztecs Maya Tocuaro Kids Contact 21 Nov 2023/13 Deer Introduction We are most grateful to Renee McGarry, doctoral candidate in art history at the City University of New York Graduate Center, for writing this introduction to our new series of pieces on key creatures and wildlife in the Aztec world.