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The treaty of October 24, 1648, comprehended the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden. England, Poland, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire were the only European powers that were not represented at the two assemblies.

In the waning days of the war, with German victory all but assured, the German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck. With the notable exception of Austria, the vast majority of German-speakers were united under a nation-state for the first time.

Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493-1648 Joachim Whaley Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN: 9780198731016; 752pp.; Price: £85.00 Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648-1806 Joachim Whaley

William I, German Emperor; Wilhelm II, German Emperor; Iberia (3 articles) Francisco Franco; Juan Carlos I; António de Oliveira Salazar; Ireland (3 articles) Michael Collins (Irish leader) Charles Stewart Parnell; Éamon de Valera; Italy (2 articles) Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour; Benito Mussolini; United Kingdom (9 articles) Robert Peel ...

On this day the National Assembly elected the King of Prussia to become the new emperor. A delegation of 32 deputies under the leadership of the jurist Eduard Simson travelled to distant Berlin to offer Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV this high honour. Since there was finally going to be an emperor in Frankfurt again, the joy was great.

After the Russian Empire under Alexander III rejected the German ultimatum demanding the reinstatement of Alexander I and an end to Russian influence in the Balkans, Germany, with the consent of Great Britain, declared war on Russia. The war itself was decided after only five months with the crushing Russian defeat at the Battle of Brest.

This might have caused survivors like Wilhelm Pieck and Walter Ulbricht to re-think their commitment to Soviet-style communism. Instead they doubled down by denouncing former comrades and aiding ...

I n the winter of 1884–85, the chancellor of a novice country called Germany, Otto von Bismarck, convened a conference of fourteen European nations and other major powers to discuss colonialism in Africa.